Kashmir, a land of mesmerizing beauty and enduring conflict, is renowned for its rich tapestry of cultures, faiths, and traditions. While the region is often romanticized for its Sufi tolerance and communal harmony, a deeper look reveals a complex and persistent social hierarchy: the caste system. This system, distinct in form from the rigid Hindu varna order of the Indian plains, nevertheless weaves itself through the lives, opportunities, and identities of Kashmiris, be they in Pakistan-administered Kashmir Azad Jammu & Kashmir (AJK) or Indian-administered Jammu & Kashmir.
Understanding the caste system in Kashmir is vital for grasping the region’s politics, society, and struggles for justice. This article, based on historical research, sociological studies, and interviews with local voices, examines the evolution, impact, and future of caste in Kashmir. It seeks to offer a nuanced, journalistically balanced, and authoritative exploration of a subject often left in the shadows.
Kashmir’s social structure, like much of South Asia, has deep historical roots. Prior to Islam’s spread in the 14th century, Kashmir was home to a Hindu society organized around Brahmanical varnas and jatis (sub-castes), with Brahmins, Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders), and Shudras (laborers and artisans) forming a stratified order. Conversion to Islam, catalyzed by Sufi saints and local rulers, swept across the Valley beginning in the 14th century, eventually making Kashmir one of the few Muslim-majority regions in India.
However, as historian Chitralekha Zutshi notes in Languages of Belonging, conversion did not erase existing social distinctions. Instead, many new Muslim communities retained their ancestral caste identities, which often continued to shape land tenure, occupation, and social status. Over centuries, these groups adopted new titles, married within their biradari (community), and developed elaborate kinship networks—creating a uniquely Kashmiri form of caste stratification.
Historically, the Butt (or Bhat) community traces its roots to Kashmiri Pandit Brahmins. Many Butts embraced Islam but maintained a reputation for scholarship, landownership, and influence in administration and education. The Butt surname is widespread in both AJK and Indian-administered Kashmir.
The Lones are believed to originate from landholding classes or minor chieftains, particularly in north Kashmir and adjacent regions of AJK. With significant presence in agriculture, trade, and politics, Lones remain a prominent and respected community.
“Mir,” meaning “chief” or “leader,” was originally a title bestowed on community heads, religious leaders, and landed elites. Today, the Mir group retains prestige and is found across both sides of the Line of Control.
Sheikhs represent a diverse set of families whose ancestors are thought to have converted to Islam early, often under the influence of Sufi missionaries. Associated with trade, learning, or artisanal work, the Sheikh identity is widespread but variable in status.
Gujjars are a large, semi-nomadic pastoral community, historically cattle herders and shepherds. They have their own language (Gojri), distinct customs, and occupy a marginalized socio-economic position in both AJK and Indian-administered Kashmir. Gujjars are classified as a Scheduled Tribe (ST) in India, entitling them to affirmative action, but face persistent barriers to education, land rights, and political representation.
The Rajputs, often linked to martial traditions and landownership, migrated into Kashmir from the Indian plains. Many converted to Islam, while others remained Hindu or Sikh. In AJK and Jammu, Rajputs wield significant political and social influence.
The Sudhans, claiming descent from Pashtun Sadozai tribes, are a powerful group in AJK, especially in Poonch and Rawalakot. Many Sudhans have prominent roles in politics, the military, and administration.
Descendants of Central Asian immigrants, the Mughal community is found mainly in AJK and the Valley, often associated with land, business, and historical administrative roles.
The Bomba, with roots in the Neelum and Muzaffarabad valleys, trace royal and warrior origins. Historically, Bomba chiefs ruled over strategic territories before the British and Dogra conquests.
Other significant biradaris include Dar, Wani, Malik, Choudhary, Syed (who claim descent from the Prophet), and various artisan castes.
Caste identity in Kashmir, while less rigidly codified than in the Indian mainland, remains a key marker of social status. High-status groups—Butt, Lone, Mir, Rajput—often enjoy greater respect, easier access to land, and social capital. Lower-status groups, such as some Gujjars and artisan castes, may face subtle or overt discrimination, especially in rural areas.
Marriages are still frequently arranged within the same biradari, and inter-caste unions, though increasing in urban areas, can provoke familial or social backlash. Community associations, or biradari committees, play a role in dispute resolution, social events, and welfare, reinforcing caste boundaries as much as they provide support.
Biradari identity has a profound impact on politics in both AJK and Indian-administered Kashmir. Electoral candidates often rely on their community networks for support, and party nominations are influenced by caste calculations. In AJK, Sudhans, Rajputs, Gujjars, and Mughals dominate particular constituencies. In the Valley, Butts, Lones, and Mirs are often overrepresented in administration and politics.
According to a 2021 Institute of Policy Studies Islamabad report, “biradari-based voting” is a decisive factor in AJK elections, shaping policy and patronage. In Indian-administered Kashmir, caste is less openly discussed but is deeply embedded in local governance, resource allocation, and recruitment for government jobs.
Access to land, state employment, and educational opportunity remains unequally distributed along caste lines. Historically dominant groups control a disproportionate share of land and government jobs. Gujjars, Bakerwals, and other tribal or artisan communities often lag behind in education, health, and income, a gap documented in the Jammu & Kashmir Human Development Report (2012).
Affirmative action programs, such as the Scheduled Tribe (ST) status for Gujjars and Bakerwals in India, have improved some indicators, but implementation remains patchy. In AJK, social mobility for marginalized biradaris is hampered by the lack of targeted welfare programs and limited access to quality education.
To illustrate the impact of caste on daily life, The Azadi Times presents the stories of three Kashmiris from different backgrounds. The names are representative, and the interviews are based on composite experiences gathered from field research.
Q: How did caste influence your upbringing and opportunities?
Faheem Lone:
“Growing up as a Lone, I always felt a certain respect in the village. My family’s name opened doors—at weddings, in panchayat meetings, even in business. When I decided to marry someone outside the community, my parents were concerned about ‘what people would say.’ Professionally, I don’t think my caste matters in the city, but when you go back home, it is always there, in subtle ways.”
Q: Have you experienced discrimination or support based on your caste?
Shazia Bano:
“Being a Gujjar in Muzaffarabad meant hearing jokes about our accent or lifestyle. At school, some teachers assumed Gujjar kids would struggle more. My own daughter faced bias, but scholarships for tribal students helped her get into medical school. We’re proud of our identity, but the stereotypes are real. I want my children to be seen for their talent, not their caste.”
Q: Has caste changed in meaning for the new generation?
Dr. Mir Rashid:
“Caste is deeply embedded, even if it’s not openly discussed. It shapes who gets invited to events, who is trusted with leadership, and who is left behind. But there’s change. Young Kashmiris, especially in cities, are breaking these barriers—making friends, choosing partners, and collaborating beyond biradari. Still, we need policy reforms and social awareness to make equality real for everyone.”
Marriage remains the most “caste-conscious” aspect of Kashmiri life. Matrimonial ads in local newspapers routinely specify the desired biradari. Families often veto matches that cross caste lines, citing tradition, compatibility, or social acceptance. While urban youth are pushing boundaries, many inter-caste couples face resistance, or in extreme cases, social ostracism.
Biradari associations offer support in times of crisis—be it illness, bereavement, or financial need. They mediate disputes, organize community events, and even pool resources for education or business ventures. This communal solidarity can be empowering, but also reinforces in-group preference and out-group exclusion.
For marginalized groups, exclusion can be subtle—limited invitations to social events, mockery of dialect, or assumptions about ability. For example, Gujjars and Bakerwals are sometimes stereotyped as “backward” or “uneducated,” despite many success stories. Artisan castes may face barriers to upward mobility, with their traditional skills undervalued in the modern economy.
In Indian-administered Kashmir, affirmative action policies (reservations) extend to STs (Gujjars, Bakerwals), SCs (Scheduled Castes, mainly Dalits), and some OBCs (Other Backward Classes). This has improved access to education and government jobs, but implementation gaps remain, particularly in remote areas.
In AJK, there is no formal reservation system, and social mobility depends more on individual effort, patronage, and community support.
Caste-based networks influence party nominations, electoral alliances, and government appointments. In some constituencies, the “right” biradari can be the difference between victory and defeat. Critics argue that this entrenches patronage politics and diverts attention from merit or policy issues.
Civil society activists and some reform-minded politicians are calling for greater attention to caste-based discrimination. Proposals include targeted scholarships, affirmative action in AJK, anti-discrimination campaigns in schools, and more inclusive community engagement.
Cities like Srinagar, Muzaffarabad, and Mirpur are changing the old order. Urbanization brings diverse communities into daily contact, diluting old prejudices for some, but creating new forms of exclusion for others, such as economic or class-based divides.
The Kashmiri diaspora, especially in the UK, North America, and the Middle East, often navigates new identities. While some maintain biradari networks abroad, others forge alliances across lines of caste, faith, and ethnicity. Remittances, exposure to new ideas, and transnational marriages are quietly reshaping the region’s social fabric.
Education is perhaps the most powerful tool for breaking caste barriers. As more Kashmiris attend university, study abroad, or enter the professions, a merit-based identity is emerging. Yet, access to quality education is itself patterned by caste and geography.
- **Chitralekha Zutshi, Languages of Belonging: Explores the persistence of caste and kinship in Kashmir’s Islamic society.
- **Mohini Qasba Raina, Kashur: The Kashmiri Speaking People: Traces the transformation of caste and community from Hindu to Muslim Kashmir.
- Jammu & Kashmir Human Development Report 2012: Documents disparities between social groups.
- Institute of Policy Studies Islamabad, “Biradari Politics in AJK” (2021): Analyzes how caste shapes elections and patronage.
- Media sources: Greater Kashmir, Dawn, The Wire, and regional news outlets regularly report on caste-based discrimination and social change.
The caste system in Kashmir is neither a relic of the past nor an unchanging tradition—it is a living, evolving aspect of the region’s social fabric. It provides meaning, identity, and mutual aid, but also perpetuates exclusion, hierarchy, and missed opportunities. As Kashmir grapples with political uncertainty, economic challenges, and the pressures of modernity, the quest for social justice must include an honest reckoning with caste.
The future will depend on the region’s ability to honor cultural diversity, celebrate shared humanity, and dismantle barriers to equality. As Dr. Mir Rashid said, “Kashmir’s strength is its diversity. True peace and progress will come when every Kashmiri, regardless of caste or creed, is valued for their potential and dignity.”
- Raina, Mohini Qasba (2014). Kashur: The Kashmiri Speaking People. Trafford Publishing.
- Zutshi, Chitralekha (2004). Languages of Belonging: Islam, Regional Identity, and the Making of Kashmir. Permanent Black.
- Jammu & Kashmir Human Development Report (2012). Institute of Public Administration, Government of India.
- “Biradari Politics in AJK,” Institute of Policy Studies Islamabad, 2021.
- Census of India 2011, Jammu & Kashmir Data Highlights.
- “Kashmir’s Caste Divide,” The Wire, August 2022.
- “Who are the Gujjars and Bakerwals of Jammu and Kashmir?” Greater Kashmir, July 2020.
